Financial Benefits of Traffic Management Case Study of Haringey Council Free Essays

string(37) " of the bond issue \(HKS, Undated\)\." Introduction Haringey council is a public sector organisation that is involved in financing many local projects. This paper aims at providing a literature review on the financial benefits of traffic management focusing on the case study of Haringey Council. The literature review focuses on 3 main areas including financing for public sector organisations, financing for local councils and financing in the Parking Department. We will write a custom essay sample on Financial Benefits of Traffic Management: Case Study of Haringey Council or any similar topic only for you Order Now Public Sector Financing The government is responsible for collecting tax revenues as well as allocating these revenues to suitable projects such payment of wages to employees, road and railway construction and maintenance, education, health, and defence. The government must provide such projects because left to the private sector alone, these projects will not be provided efficiently. Governments not only raise money from taxes. Some governments find it difficult to cover all its expenditure with tax revenue. Under such circumstances, the government is obliged to borrow either internally through the issue of bonds or externally from other countries. The government is therefore accountable to its citizens on its sources and uses of funds. In order to effectively serve the public, the public sector in many countries is decentralised. Most public goods and services are delivered by local councils. Local councils are responsible for collecting local taxes are delivering local projects to the citizens. For examp le in the United Kingdom, the council is responsible for many delivering many goods and services to citizens within its territory. As a result of the inefficiencies that may result if all goods and services are offered by the private sector, the public sector has emerged as a very important sector of the economy. The public sector is made up of a number of organisations known as public sector organisations. These organisations are responsible for responding to the needs of society that cannot be provided by the private sector. Public sector organisations differ from private sector organisations in a variety of ways at both the functional and organisational levels. Public sector organisations also differ from private sector organisations in terms of their specific objectives, policies, objectives, target products and services. Public sector organisations are particularly interested in achieving social objectives as opposed to private sector organisations which focus on commercial goals (Ramos et al., 2007). Private sector organisations are interested in making profit and creating value for the owners or sharehold ers. As a result, private sector organisations measure their performance using finance. Public sector organisations on the other hand do not focus on making profit. In addition, they do not measure performance solely on financial grounds. Like private sector bodies, public sector organisations have a number of stakeholders with a number of expectations from the organisation (Goodwin, 2000; Ramos et al., 2007). Major stakeholders of the public sector include taxpayers, trade unions, customers, government ministries, social responsibility interest groups, trade unions, trading funds and public corporations (Pollitt, 2000; Ramos et al., 2007) A key difference between the two sectors is the mode in which in sector is financed. Unlike the private sector which relies on debt and equity sources of funding, the main source of funding for the public sector is taxation. This has led to the concept of public finance. Public finance is defined as the financing of goods and services provides by the national and local government through taxation and other means. In other words it is the means by which public sector organisations raise finance for proposed projects and other expenses. In the United States for example, Financing takes the form of debt and can be general obligation bond or revenue bond (HKS, Undated). General obligation bonds are bonds that are issued by government agencies. These are backed by the full faith and credit and taxing authority of the issuer/borrower. General obligation bonds therefore enable the taxing authority to raise necessary funds in anticipation that taxes will cover the repayment of those funds. R evenue bonds on the other hand are backed by the revenue to be generated from the project that is being funded through the bonds (HKS, Undated). These bonds are issued for the financing of special projects including transportation and airport projects. A variety of entities and organisations are involved in the bond issuing process and thus in the financing of public sector entities. These include issuers, investment banks, rating agencies, financial advisors to municipal bond issuers, bond insurers, public fund investment managers and advisors, and investors. In the United State, issuers include Federal, State, local and other agencies and entities including special purpose entities. Investment banks are responsible for helping public sector organisations to raise money. This group include large investment firms such as JP Morgan, Goldman Sachs, Citi Group, Morgan Stanley, Morgan Keegan, and Siebert Brandford Shank and Co (HKS, Undated). Credit rating agencies are responsible for providing ratings to the bonds issued by public sector entities. Popular rating agencies in the United States include Standard Poor’s, Moody’s and Fitch. The objective of financial advisors to municipal bond issuers is to provide local auth orities with advice on how to raise capital, manage their entities effectively and invest assets in an effective and efficient manner. A typical example of a financial advisor in the United States is Assured Guaranty Corp. Bond insurers are responsible for insuring the bond issues. Public fund investment advisors may be hired by municipal authorities to manage the proceeds of the bond offering until they are needed for the intended purpose. Public fund advisors may also be hired to manage the revenues collected throughout the year from projects funded by the bond issue until they are spent. Investors are the entities that purchase municipal bonds. These include retail and institutional investors such as insurance companies and pension funds. Other organisations involved in the financing of public sector organisations include lawyers who may be required to provide legal advice to issuers on the legal issues related to a transaction as well as the structuring of the bond issue (HKS, Undated). You read "Financial Benefits of Traffic Management: Case Study of Haringey Council" in category "Essay examples" A number of studies have investigated how public sector organisations across different parts of the world are financed. For example, Tang et al. (2012) introduce and formulate a carbon revenue bond a financing tool that can be used as a complement to environmental credit markets to encourage investment in renewable energy. The study provides evidence that the issuing of a carbon revenue bond with a 10-year maturity can fund a significant portion of the initial outlay of a project (Tang et al., 2012). Financing For Local Government Local governments are responsible for providing public services at the local level. In order to effectively provide these goods and services, local governments must be able to generate revenue. According to the decentralisation theorem suggested by Oates (1972) â€Å"local governments should provide services to identifiable recipients up to the point where the value placed on the last (marginal) amount of services for which recipients are willing to pay is equal to the benefits they receive†. The practical implication of the above theorem is that local authorities must have some authority to exercise â€Å"own-source† taxation to be able to meet the marginal costs of providing local goods and services (Yilmaz et al., 2008). Local governments are assumed to be more accountable to citizens when relying on their own tax bases and less accountable when the pleasure of spending is separated from the difficulties associated with generating revenue through taxation (Bahl and Schroeder 1983). The foregoing suggests that, if the central government is responsible for generating tax revenue on behalf of the local government and providing them with grants and subsidies to cover expenditure for the provision of local services, local governments will be less cautious when spending, since they have no knowledge on the difficulties associated with collecting taxes. Allowing them to collect taxes themselves puts them under immense pressure to make good use of the revenue collected. The above suggests that local governments need to be financed through local taxation. Despite the above proposition, local governments across different countries are financed through both local taxes and central government grants and subsidies. For example, in Ireland for example, a significant portion of local government expenditure is financed by grants from the central government (Indecon International Economic, 2005). The local authorities have limited discretion, insufficient revenue buoyancy and an inequitable financing system (Indecon International Economic, 2005). Furthermore, the situation appears to have worsened since 1996 given that central government’s contribution to local government expenditure has increased since 1996. A similar situation is apparent in the Republic of Ireland. Local councils generated only 58% of the revenue in 2012 from business rates and as well as from goods and services. The remaining 42% was contributed by the central government grants and subsidies. Although a significant amount of capital expenditure comes from various government departments, local authorities also generate significant capital income from the growth in construction and the reform of the development contribution System (Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Goverment, 2012). The situation in Denmark is different where local governments finance more than 75% of their expenditures from local taxation (Lotz, 2005). In the United Kingdom in general, local government is financed through council tax, capital receipts, user charges, borrowing, interest charges and government grants (Adam et al., 2007). Local governments can only budget to pay for expenses such as wages and other day-to-day running costs from only a couple of these financing sources. Local governments are not allowed to sell assets or borrow out rightly to cover current spending. In addition, some of the central government grants are restricted only to capital expenditure (Adam et al., 2007). Financing in the Parking Department Empirical evidence of suggests that the council can benefit from management and delivery of many services. However, most studies have focused on different areas. One area that has been widely studied is curb parking. Some studies have examined how local councils can manage curb parking. For example, it has been argued that allowing motorists to park freely on the curb creates a classic commons problem (Shoup, 2003). As a result local governments tend to restrict parking on curb spaces to approximately 1 or 2 hour limits. Despite these restrictions, motorists tend not to respect the limits, making it difficult for their enforcement. Occupying all curb spaces increases turnover thus making it difficult for motorists to find a parking space. This means that drivers need to continue driving in order to locate a space that is being relinquished by a departing motorist. The higher the numbers of cars competing for curb parking spaces, the longer is the time taken to locate a space. Cruisin g therefore creates a moving queue of cars each waiting to locate a vacancy on the curb. However, it is difficult to distinguish between cruisers and cars that are actually going elsewhere. A number of studies have been conducted to determine the actual number of cars that are cruising. The first study was conducted by Simpson (1927 cited in Shoup, 2003) by measuring traffic by counting the number of cars as they repeatedly passed observation points at two locations in Detroit’s CBD from 14:00 to 18:00. The results suggest that 19 percent of cars passing through point one and 34 percent of cars passing through point two were in search of a vacancy on the curb. Cruising is considered a negative form of vehicle travel because it increases the amount of time travelled by the vehicle known as vehicle mile travel (VMT) without taking into account other travel time. VMT is referred to as searching for parking once motorists reach their destinations. Cars simply circle a particular block without going anywhere. Cruising is also capable of reducing travel to congested areas if potential visitors imagine that nobody is going there anymore because it is overcrowded (Shoup, 2003). Cruising therefore creates an impression of crowding which can in turn deter visitors who would otherwise be willing to pay a premium if they could park without cruising and as such limits patronage of the business that cheap curb parking is supposed to help. The foregoing suggests that low priced parking on the curb creates a classic commons problem. Empirical evidence suggests that approximately 8% and 7% of cars in congested traffic were cruising in search of curb parking and that the average cruising time ranged between 3 and 14 minutes. In order to eliminate cruising and thus reduce congestion, curb parking needs to be charged at market-clearing prices. This can result in approximately 5% and 8% of the total land rent in a city. Moreover, in some neighbourhoods, market clearing prices on the curb can provide more revenue to the local authority that the property tax that is being charged on the land (Shoup, 2003). Charging for curb parking is not meant to be a source of local government revenue (Shoup, 2003; Arnott and Rowse,1999). Charging for curb parking is meant to reduce the length of time that a particular car can use the curb. This is because if a single car uses the curb for a very long time it will result in a build-up of traffic. Charing for curb parking is therefore, barely a means of reducing cruising and thus traffic congestion during busy periods. The objective is to limit the occupancy rate to 85%. Therefore, once the occupancy rate is below 85%, curb parking should be free (Shoup, 2003). Once demand increases above this rate, curb parking is no longer a public good because it takes time to find a vacant space and the marginal cost of adding another user increases. Since curb parking is fixed in supply, an increase in demand must result to an increase in price to ensure that the occupancy rate is limited at 85% (Ellickson, 1973). Goodwin (2001) employs prices to manage the deman d of transportation by making a distinction between two policies. The first policy is to get the prices right when travel is undercharged and the second policy is to decide how much traffic is required and then make use of prices to achieve it. The second policy is achieved by setting the occupancy rate for curb parking (Goodwin, 2001). The right price is not chosen by the administration. Rather, the right price is determined by the right occupancy rate. Charging for curb parking also makes it possible for local councils to abandon time limits as a way of reducing congestion in the city. In another study, Shoup (2003) argues that argues based on the 19th-century reformer Henry George by arguing that land rent represents the most appropriate means of generating revenue for the government. Despite the importance of traffic management, there is apparently no literature investigating its potential financial benefits to the society. A study commissioned by the OECD (2007) provides some i nsights on how traffic management through the management of congestion can improve the functioning of urban cities. Congestion imposes a burden on urban travellers. By using effective land planning and appropriate levels of public transport services traffic congestion can be reduced. Reducing traffic congestion provides road users with reliable door-to-door trips. Less congestion facilitates the movement of people, goods and services from one place to another. This reduces the cost of delays thus resulting in overall financial benefits for the overall economy. Low congestion also benefits the council financially in that results in cost savings for the council (OECD, 2007). Litman (2012) in another study investigates how the improvement of parking management can benefit society. While the study does not provide a discussion of the direct financial benefits of parking management, the study provides insights which show that enormous financial benefits can be derived from effective park ing management. The study argues that developing a comprehensive parking management program that incorporates an appropriate combination of cost-effective strategies can usually reduce the amount of parking required at a destination by 20-40% thus providing economic and social benefits (Litman, 2012). The economic benefits can come from reduced congestion which ensures that people, goods and services can move freely from one place to another. In addition, this strategy increases the revenue that local authorities can collect from parking charges. Osborn (2003) focuses on the benefits of Parking Management. The study provides evidence that parking management can result in a wide range of benefits including meeting the economic needs of the community; meeting the financial needs of the developmemt community, supporting the transportation infrastructure and providing opportunities for better streetscape design (Osborn, 2003). Again, the study by Osborn (2003) suggests some potential be nefits of traffic management. However, the study fails to provide an in-depth analysis of the financial benefits. Traffic management is important for Haringey Council because it reduces traffic congestion, improves safety, and reduces environmental pollution. In order to effectively manage traffic, the Council consults with local residents to gain an understanding of their views prior to introduction new traffic rules (Haringey Councl, 2012) The Council also endeavours to publish formal notices regarding traffic measures in the press. Local residents are normally given a three week period to provide objections regarding the introduction of new measures (Haringey Councl, 2012). Once formal objections have been received, they are reviewed and schemes may be redesigned with further notices being published prior to implementation of a legally enforceable Traffic Order. Despite the importance of traffic management to Haringey Council, it can be observed that no study has been conducted to determine what the financial benefits of traffic management can be to Councils in General and to Haringey Council in particular. While some studies have attempted to study traffic management by local authorities, most of the studies have focused only on one aspect of traffic management – charging for curb parking and most of the studies have focused on cities in the United States with very limited attention given to cities in the United Kingdom. This study therefore aims at contributing to the literature in that it focuses on Haringey Council, which is based in the United Kingdom and considers a wider range of traffic management tools as discussed above. In particular the paper extends the literature by evaluating the parking financial strategy and objectives of Haringey council parking services. These issues have not been considered in previous studies despite their significance for traffic management strategic financial planning. In addition, the study focuses on understanding the financial outcomes achieved by parking services in Haringey council in relation to the income generated and investments made in parking projects. The paper also evaluates how financial analysis can promote the success of parking services. Finally, the study aims at making recommendations that will help Haringey council in particular and local authorities in general to improve their traffic management. Conclusions The objective of this paper was to provide a literature review on the financial benefits of traffic management using the case study of Haringey Council. The literature review focused on the financing of public sector organisations, financing of local authorities and traffic management at Haringey Council. With regards to financing public sector organisations, the literature review that public sector organisations are financed mainly through taxes and borrowing. Local authorities on their part are financed through local taxation, borrowing and central government grants and subsidies. With respect to traffic management at Haringey Council, the literature revealed that the Council has made significant investments in managing traffic so as to improve road safety and reduce traffic congestion. References Adam, S., Emmerson, C., Kenley, A. (2007) A Survey of UK Local Government Finance, Institute for Fiscal Studies, IFS Briefing Note No. 74, available online at: http://www.ifs.org.uk/bns/bn74.pdf [accessed: 9th December 2012]. Bahl, Roy, and Larry Schroeder. 1983. Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations. In Local Government Finance in the Third World: A Case Study of the Philippines, ed. R. Bahl and B. Miller. New York: Praeger. Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Goverment (2012). Local Government Finance, available online at: http://www.environ.ie/en/GreenPaper/html/greenp_chaptwelve.html [accessed: 10th December 2012]. Ellickson, B., 1973. A generalization of the pure theory of public goods. American Economic Review, vol. 63, No.3, June, pp. 417– 432. Godwin N. (2000). Leadership and the UK Health Service. Health Policy. Vol. 51 Pp 49-60. Goodwin, P., 2001. Traffic reduction. In: Button, K., Hensher, D. (Ed.), Handbook of Transport Systems and Traffic Control. Pergamon, Amsterdam, pp. 21– 32. HKS (Undated) Public Finance, Havard Kennedy School, available online at: http://www.hks.harvard.edu/var/ezp_site/storage/fckeditor/file/pdfs/degree-programs/oca/Gateway_PublicFinance2011.pdf [accessed: 10th December 2012]. Indecon International Economic (2005) Indecon Review of Local Government Financing Report Commissioned by the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, available online at: http://www.environ.ie/en/LocalGovernment/LocalGovernmentAdministration/LocalGovernmentFinance/PublicationsDocuments/FileDownLoad,1944,en.pdf [accessed: 10th December 2012]. Law, J., Smullen, J. (2008) â€Å"Public Finance† in A Dictionary of Finance and Banking (4 rev ed.) Oxford University Press. Lotz, J. (2005) Accountability and Control in the Financing of Local Government in Denmark, OECD Journal On Budgeting, 5(2) Oates, W. 1972. Fiscal Federalism. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovic. Pollitt, Christopher. Bouckaert, Geert. (2000). Public Management Reform: A Comparative Analysis, Oxford University Press. Ramos T.B., Alves I., Melo J. J. (2007). Environmental performance policy indicators for the public sector: The case of the defence sector. Journal of Environmental Management. Vol. 82 Pp 410-432. Shoup, D. C. (2003)The ideal source of local public revenue, Regional Science and Urban Economic,s 34 ,753– 784 Tang, A., Chiara, N., Taylor, J. E. (2012) Financing renewable energy infrastructure: Formulation, pricing and impact of a carbon revenue bond, Energy Policy 45, 691–703 Yilmaz, S., Beris, Y., Serrano-Berthe, R. (2008) Local Government Discretion and Accountability: A Diagnostic Framework for Local Governance, Social Development Papers, Local Governance Accountability Series Paper No. 113 / July. Osborn, L. (2003) Parking Management Programs as Effective TDM Land Use Strategies ACT International Conference – Parking Management Strategies-September 2003 Litman, T. (2012) Parking Management Strategies, Evaluation and Planning, [online] Victoria Transport Policy Institute: Available at: http://www.vtpi.org/park_man.pdf [accessed: 11th January 2013]. OECD (2007) Managing Urban Traffic Congestion, [online] Organisation for Economic Corporation and Development: Available at: http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/jtrc/CongestionSummary.pdf [accessed: 11th January 2013]. Arnott, R., Rowse, J., 1999. How to cite Financial Benefits of Traffic Management: Case Study of Haringey Council, Free Case study samples

Stricter Rules for Hockey Parents Essay Example For Students

Stricter Rules for Hockey Parents Essay Stricter Rules for Hockey ParentsThe sport of hockey has a long proud history of being one of the best sports in the world. Great excitement for the fans and great fun for the players, but lately there has been too much emphasis on winning in the lower levels. It is very hard for children now days to play hockey for the fun of the game. It is not the children themselves, or even the coaches that put this pressure to win on them. It is the parents of the children who create this pressure. Hockey parents have made winning so important that they sometimes lose sight of the reason that they are there in the first place. Hockey may be a fast paced, high adrenaline sport (you see more fights in hockey than any other team sport), but parents should leave the body contact to the players. Fortunately, physical abuse is still not very common in arenas but every year there are more reports of enraged parents assaulting referees or other players due to mishaps that took place during the game. Winning is not the only reason that some parents become upset. There has also been a growing dilemma with parents becoming outraged with coaches for factors as small as the amount of ice time their child receives during a game. There is a growing ambition among parents for their child to succeed in hockey and become a professional even bef ore the child reaches adolescence. Although very serious, physical abuse is still not a common sight in arenas, but it is a serious problem which needs to be corrected. Verbal abuse however, is very common in arenas all over Ontario. Names and threats can be heard coming from the stands at any caliber of hockey at any age. This is also a significant problem which needs to be stopped. The best defense against this kind of behaviour would be to create stricter penalties for anyone parents who get out of control. Anyone who is verbally abusive to officials or coaches should be given fines which increase for each infraction. If the abuse continues after three fines then the person should be banned from arenas for a specified amount of time depending on the severity and the frequency of the instances. If not abuse persists even after the ban the parent should be banned from all minor hockey games for life. Any physical bouts between parents and officials should result in the parent being banned for an unofficial length of time and a evaluation/review of the situation and peoples involved, with an official punishment proceeding. But how will these punishments be enforced? The government does not have the funds to ensure that police officers can not be on duty at every minor hockey game in the province. Instead a new officiating position will have to be created in order to control parents and assign punishments as necessary. These officers would be trained and paid through the money from registration from minor hockey organizations similarly to referees on the ice. These individuals would also be given the right to eject anyone from the game who is causing a disturbance without an additional punishment. It is a shame that this may be the only way to deter the parental abuse of authority figures, but if these incidents continue to rise at the same degree that they are presently there may not be another means of stopping it. The sport of hockey has become more than a game for most Canadians, it has become an obsession. Unfortunately for all the wrong reasons. With these rules and enforcements the game of hockey can return to being an excellent spectator sport, where fans can watch and officials can work in a safe environment.

Is the Family a Fabricated Thing

Introduction The family has traditionally occupied a central place in society with communities hailing it as the basic unit of society. Families provide the social core in all societies and the nuclear family is present in all societies in the world. The unifying function of the family has been credited with the development and advancement of societies since time immemorial.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Is the Family a Fabricated Thing? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For this reason, the family unit is unanimously considered as the basic building block of a successful and functional society. This is the ideal institution within which children are created and brought up in a protected environment until they are able to take care of themselves. The family also serves as a tool for socialization since the shared moral and social values of the community are inculcated in the children withing the family setting. For these reasons, the family is assumed to be an innate experience with some authors suggesting that the family is a natural institution. However, this notion has been questioned by anthropologists whose studies have led them to question the â€Å"naturalness† of the family unit. The findings of these scholars have led them to conclude that the family is not a natural thing but rather a construction of the society. This paper will set out to discuss the ideas of some of the most outstanding anthropologists of the 20th century, Adam Kuper, David Schneider, and Claude Levi-Strauss, in order to show that the family is a fabricated thing. The Idea of the Family The family is regarded as the basic unit of society and at its most base level; it is made up of a man, woman, and their children. Kuper (1982) states that the family preceded the formation of the society and in these early stages, it comprised of a male figure who exercised jurisdiction over his wives and children. Each family paid no regard to the other and acted in its own self-interest. The aggregation of families was the next step in social evolution and the ties of kinship became the basis of societies. The family provided the basis on which societies were ordered with expanded extended families serving as the social core.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Reproduction is universally considered to be the basis of family relations since each person must have a biological father and mother. This simple parent-child relationship makes it possible to perform genealogical tracing since it is a biological fact that a man and a woman must be involved in procreation. Therefore, the concept of kinship was formulated based on this blood relation and relationships though marriage unions between previously unrelated parties. The naturalness of the family has been presupposed for many centuries due to th e prevalence of this social grouping. However, the arguments made by anthropologists suggest that the family is a cultural construct. Family: A Fabricated Concept Adam Kuper’s Ideas Adam Kuper suggests that the family was formulated as an organization through which people could live in harmony and accomplish greater exploits. Before the concept of family, each individual acted at his own discretion and there was no order or system of laws in place. Kuper (1982) records that the original state of human society was characterized by promiscuity rather than family life and this status quo was detrimental to the raising of children. This primitive existence was unsustainable since violence and anarchy reigned. The family unit emerged as a more ordered system of procreation within which the child could exist in a more secure environment. As the family concept became more sophisticated, legal paternity became recognized and the child could grow in an environment where he/she had a m other and a father. The extended patriarchal family group provided the basis for jural order and continuity (Kuper 1982, p.73). The earliest form of government was therefore based on the family concept. The political ideas were grounded in the assumption that â€Å"kinship in blood is the sole possible ground of community in political functions† (Kuper 2008, p.723). The family was formulated as the best structure to foster social stability and encourage good governance. The prohibition of some relationships in some cultures while the same relationships are allowed in others is further proof that kinship is a culturally constructed concept. Human beings formulate the laws governing who should marry whom and therefore forms a family and they vary from society to society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Is the Family a Fabricated Thing? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kuper (2008) documents that in the nine teenth century, there was no crime in incest, and there were no rules articulating which marriages were allowed or forbidden. Before the 1880s, incest was an acceptable practice in England and there were no laws against the practice. The social perception of incest only underwent a radical change when the danger of sexual relations between fathers and daughters, or brothers and sisters began to be publicized by the National Vigilance Association. Following this, incest came to be conceived of as an offence with a victim. Because of this change in public perception, the British Parliament passed a Law in 1907 that made incest a crime and criminalized sexual relationships between members of the immediate family. As such, the family is a fabricated institute that is prone to changes based on the public needs. Kuper (2003) argues that the family was necessary to ensure survival in the primitive societies where division of labour was necessary. In these pre-modern societies, the nuclear family comprised of male and female enabled the parties to specialize in various activities for sustenance. The males typically acted as the hunters while the females were gatherers within a nuclear family setting. This economic function increased the value of the family and kinship was integral for survival Kuper (2003). It is conceivable that without the economic need of family, this institution would never have been created. Further reinforcing this supposition is the observation by anthropologists that with the rise of the individualist modern society, the economic functions of family have shrunk and each sex can manage to exist without the need of the other. Another indication that family is a fabricated concept is the difference in preference placed on a particular side of the family by different cultures. While some cultures emphasize on matrilineal descent (kin from the mother’s lineage), others emphasize on patrilineal descent (kin through the father’s lineage ).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In addition to this, the location of residence differs with some cultures promoting marriage residence at the mother’s family house while most promote residence at the father’s family house (Kuper 2003). If the family was a natural construct, there would be universal preferences and all cultures would follow the same conventions. The fact that different ideals are practiced by different cultures proves that family is a human construction. The rapid changes in society that were experienced in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated that the family was not an integral component of the society. During this period, consensual unions became widespread and the traditional family unit was dismantled in some circles. Some people began to view the family as a major source of discontentment within the society and this greatly discredited the nuclear family as an unshakeable institution. The sentiments of the time are best articulated by Leach who asserts, â€Å"far from being the basi s for the good society, the family with its narrow privacy and tawdry secrets, is the source of all our discontents† (Kuper 2003, p.332). The nature of partner relationships has also experienced significant changes over the decades with a marked decline in the importance of the social origin of a partner being exhibited in all modern societies. In the past, great weight was placed on marriage with major kinship involvement in the process (Dykstra 2006). Today, marriage unions are primarily a matter of personal choice and preference with the families on both sides of the partners being involved only marginally. In addition to this, the frequency with which family unions are dissolved has risen tremendously. The increased rate of marriage dissolutions is blamed on the heightened emphasis on the emotional side of relationships, which leads to higher expectations and demands by both partners on each other (Dykstra 2006). In traditional marriage unions, emphasis was placed on the s ocial and material benefits of the union. Claude Levi-Strauss’s Ideas Claude Levi-Strauss is credited with advancing the Structuralism theory in which he argued that the phenomena of the external world are apprehended as having distinct characteristics because of the way our senses communicate these perceptions (Voss 1977). Human beings are predisposed to categorize things into separate units or segments and assign these things named classes. Any material object of culture or belief system is in imitation of human apprehension of nature (Levi-Strauss 1970). Man’s perception of nature as segmented is therefore responsible for his view of society as ordered. Advocates of the family as a natural unit might argue for the â€Å"natural† nature of the family structure since it exists universally. Both primitive and civilized societies have some concept of family, which is typically made up of females and at least one male figure either related to the female(s) by bloo d or by marriage. Levi-Strauss refutes this assertion by highlighting that cultures are bound to have some similarities since they are all products of human minds (Voss 1977). For this reason, universal features such as the family unit can occur. Levi-Strauss suggests that the basis of marriage rules was to create bonds between otherwise unrelated people. He argues that the since pre-historic times, communities had the option of intermarrying among themselves or giving away their women to other communities (Johnson 2003). The communities that gave away their women cemented political alliances and thus reduced the risk of being annihilated by superior enemies. The incest taboo was formed out of the need to enforce exogamy and therefore increase the society’s chances of survival. Voss (1977) best articulates this idea by stating that â€Å"if survival of a society is dependent upon alliance, strong sanctions against incest must be interdicted† (p.28). The family concept was formulated as an important unifying force through which the social cohesion was fostered and propagated. Levi-Strauss formulated the alliance theory in which he argued that sibling groups were linked through the exchange of sisters in marriage thus extending sibling solidarity to larger groupings (Kuper 1982). Levi-Strauss argued that â€Å"all the pre-modern societies of the world were organized on the basis of cross-cousin marriage† (Kuper 2008, p.726). He further stated that the family as a function of marriage was an institution that was formulated to create and maintain alliances. These alliances took place through the exchange between groups as people married for strategic reasons such as to strengthen political alliances (Levi-Strauss 1969). Kinship served the practical purpose of preventing war by setting up a diplomatic alliance between groups. The class structure that is based on family status is a cultural construction. Levi-Strauss considers the practice of to temism an expression of the differences among members of the society. Totemism, which is the naming of individuals or clans after particular plant or animal species, was a widespread practice since historical times (VonSturmer 1970). This practice emerged from the need of man to develop a system of social ordering by giving different class structures. Human beings are able to distinguish each other according to their mutual social status, which is normally articulated in the form of social classification. David Schneider’s Ideas Throughout the 19th century, Americans held the view that the family relationship was biologically given and of huge importance to the society. Many Europeans also shared this assumption and they presumed that kinship was a biological outcome. However, Schneider argues that if this were the case then the same set of ideas would have been developed by other peoples across the world. This is not the case and the family structure varied from continent to continent, and tribe to tribe. For this reason, David Schneider suggested that kinship was a function of civilization and not a feature of primitive society. According to this anthropologist, there is nothing natural about kinship and it is the production of the society. Social conventions alone may lead to a family relationship even if there is no biological relationship between or among parties. This view is corroborated by Johnson (2003) who reveals that a person is regarded as family based on some socially prescribed duties and privileges that the person fulfils in his/her relation to others. The manner in which people act towards each other is based on the concept of kinship, which is a construction of man. Schneider (1984) argues that there is no such thing as kinship and that â€Å"kinship† is in fact a creation of anthropologists and it has no concrete existence. Schneider (1984) suggests that family is a social construction that is useful for the allocation of right s and their transmission from one generation to the next. The family was formulated as an entity through which continuity could be guaranteed. Patrilineage in many societies served as a landholding corporations with parents leaving property to their children. Dykstra (2006) notes that resources are â€Å"passed down from one generation to the next, in the form of gifts or inheritances for example, or in the form of financial support† (p.1). Schneider (1984) theorizes that biological kinship is culturally constructed and it was formulated to help establish paternity with a fair degree of likelihood. He elaborates that primitive man lived at a time when promiscuity prevailed and there was no way of establishing who the child’s father was. The concept of â€Å"marriage of pairs† was formulated to help establish paternity and this was the earliest and greatest act of human intelligence. The bonds and ties that are attributed to the sexual reproduction that occurs in the family setting are not natural but a function of the society. Schneider (1984) observes that sexual relations can occur and have significance even outside kinship. However, the social and cultural attributes that are created when sexual reproduction occurs in a nuclear family setting are formulated by the society. Biological relations are for this reason afforded special qualities by the society. This has led to the ties being regarded as natural and inherent in the human condition. The ties between biologically close members are not natural since they would not be special without the social and cultural connotations ascribed to them. The socialization process is responsible for inculcating the concept of kinship in children. As a child grows up in the family, he/she is taught the logic by which his/her specific culture classifies kin and these concepts become ingrained in him/her. The child is often ignorant as to what kinship terms such as â€Å"uncle†, and â€Å"aunt y† mean but he/she is brought up to attach special meaning to the relationships. Schneider (1984) points out that the classifications of â€Å"relatives† may extend beyond the simple biological and genetic relationships with stipulated descent being included in the categories. Without the socializing process, the concept of the family would die out as individuals would not be confined to this socially prescribed structure. Schneider strongly rejects the understanding that family has to do with reproduction and he assertively declares that kinship is essentially undefined and vacuous which since it has little that can justify it (Read 2003). The inadequacy of blood relationships for a definition of family is accentuated by the inability for this consanguinity to account for practices such as adoption that still make fatherhood and motherhood possible. Read (2003) argues that it would be more convincing to state that family is a social convention rather than a function of procreation and parturition. Schneider argues that the family is a fabrication since some cultures do not have words that can reasonably translate to â€Å"father† or even â€Å"child†. In his ethnographic work among the Yapese, Schneider noted that the relationship between the biological father and offspring could not be translated as â€Å"father† and â€Å"child† in the English sense of the word (Schneider 1984). The Yapese people were able to exist without this genealogically based kinship relationship and even the passing down of property from generation to generation was not done on the basis of biological relationships. Further Evidence In addition to the thoughts of the renowned anthropologists referenced herein, current developments in the family structure provide more evidence that the family is a cultural construct. The traditional gender-specific division of labour has had to change with the increased participation of women in the labour mark et. Dykstra (2006) notes that the interaction between the partners who make up the family has become â€Å"more of a matter of negotiation† with the traditional gender-specific notions being all but discarded in most developed nations. The recent legitimization of gay and lesbian family formation in many Western countries further reinforces the assertion that family is a fabricated concept. For centuries, homosexual relationships were frowned upon by societies with severe penalties being imposed on individuals who engaged in these unions. Schneider (1997) reveals that the notion of sodomy was so abhorred in Western culture that if â€Å"justified killing and enslaving so many in the 15th and 16th centuries† (p.271). This has changed and homosexual unions are today tolerated on a greater scale. Schneider (1997) notes that gay and lesbian rights are today asserted with antidiscrimination laws and fringe benefits being accorded to this previously marginalized sub-group. T he traditional notion of family has had to be reinvented as non-heterosexual couples form relationships and become â€Å"families†. Discussion The idea that family is a fabricated concept has led to the fall of kinship studies as modern anthropologists have abandoned the subject due to the many internal problems and theoretical weaknesses contained in it (Kuper 2003). In spite of the different approach taken in their arguments, the three thinkers analysed in this paper, Levi-Strauss, Kuper, and Schneider all contend that family is a cultural construct. The paper has demonstrated that the prevalence of families in all communities is not an indication of their naturalness. Renowned anthropologists such as Levi-Strauss have demonstrated that the seemingly universal concept is not an indication of the naturalness of the family unit. Rather, it is a statement of the scientific operations of classification of objects and phenomena which occurs in both Western and primitive societie s. The universal family structure as we know it is a product of identical mental manipulations, which explains the seemingly self-consistent systems exhibited all over the world. The fact that the family unity is â€Å"not what it used to be† is proof enough that the family is a fabricated unit that keeps evolving with the culture of the society. In the recent past, alternative household organizations such as single-parent families and singles have become prevalent hence necessitating a review of the importance of the nuclear and extended family. These realities suggest that the assumption of genealogy or biology as the basis of the family is faulty since if this were the case, the family structure would remain static through time. In spite of the understanding that the family is a fabrication, this unit will continue to play an important role in society. The nuclear family is still the engine-room of socialization and it continues to bestow economic benefits for its members. Even Schneider (1984) acknowledges that kinship is a privileged institution since it is the major building block out of which all social systems are constructed. Conclusion This paper set out to examine the ideas of prominent anthropologists in order to demonstrate that the family is a fabricated thing. A review of these ideas has revealed that family is an ideological illusion constructed by man over the centuries. The paper has demonstrated that the concept of family started from the individual actor playing for economic and political advantage and using the family as a tool for social cohesion. The paper has convincingly shown that most aspects of kinship are not natural but rather the social construction of various societies over the centuries. The family relationship is not primarily one of genealogical and reproductively, instead, it is culturally specified and the manner in which it is expressed and perceived is a fabrication. It can therefore be authoritatively stated that family is not inherently human or universal; rather, it is a cultural construction that is arbitrary and variable in nature. References Dykstra, A 2006, Family relationships: the ties that bind, Amsterdam Study Centre for the Metropolitan Environment, Amsterdam. Johnson, C 2003, Claud Levi-Strauss: The formative years, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Kuper, A 1982, ‘Lineage Theory: A Critical Retrospective’, Ann. Rev. Anthropol, vol. 11, no. 1, pp.71-95. Kuper, A 2003, ‘What Really Happened to Kinship and Kinship Studies’, Journal of Cognition and Culture, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 329-335. Kuper, A 2008, ‘Changing the subject – about cousin marriage, among other things’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. 14, no.1, pp. 717-735. Levi-Strauss, C 1969, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, Beacon Press, Boston. Levi-Strauss, C 1970, The raw and the cooked, John and Harper, New York. Read, D 2001, What is Kinship? In The C ultural Analysis of Kinship: The Legacy of David Schneider and Its Implications for Anthropological Relativism, University of Illinois Press, Urbana. Schneider, D 1984, A critique of the study of kinship, University of Michigan Press, Michigan. Schneider, D 1997, ‘The power of culture: notes on some aspects of gay and lesbian kinship in America today’, Cultural Anthropology, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 270-274. VonSturmer, J 1970, Claude Levi-Strauss: the anthropologist as everyman, Cornell University Press, Ithaca. Voss, S 1977, ‘Claude Levi-Strauss: The Man and His Works’, Nebraska Anthropologist, vol. 145, no.1, pp. 21-38. This essay on Is the Family a Fabricated Thing? was written and submitted by user Doctor Spectrum to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization

How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization Introduction Erving Goffman (1963, p. 3) was the man who originally described stigmatization as it applied to different situations. In his book titled Stigma: Noted on the Management of Spoilt Identity, he was able to define stigma and explain the way it applied and affected the stigmatized people.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This book was the pioneer of a profuse research about the disease’s nature, the causes, implication on the victim and the impact of stigma. Since the seminal essay of Goffman’s studies on stigma, research on the same issue has been very productive. Consequently the studies provide a number of important elaborations, continual expression and fine-tuning of the concepts that related to stigma and the mental health patients. Literally, the concept of stigma can be applied to different scores of situations ranging from mental illness, urinary incontinence, pregnancy outside marriage, lesbianism, being in debt and even foreign dancing!. Amidst this profusion of investigation and studies, it is imperative to understand why the stigma concept exists, why it still has implications on mentally ill people, explore its effects pervasiveness and persistence on mentally ill people. The definition The term stigma had been in use since ancient times referring to mark left by pricking. This was initially adapted to mark slaves and identify them as having a lower social status in the society. The same has been transferred into modern world to people suffering different conditions. The terms were originally and officially defined by Goffman in 1963 as the attribute which deeply discredits an individual or a group of people (Goffman 1963, p. 3). The issue of stigmatization has been of particular interest to the sociologists, since its impact causes significant loss to the victims especially the social status where stigmatization is evident. Actually, Bruce Link and Jo Phelan, 2001, note that the consequences are the immediate aftermath of negative labelling and prejudice. In most cases the loss of social status quo is a downward placement of an individual (Link Phelan 2001, p. 371). Researchers have observed that the impact of that kind of loss also leads to loss of jobs, housing, and even breaking of a marriage (Link et al 2004, p. 511). Link and Phelan (2001), notes that the reason why a person would discriminate another is because of inadequate explanation of the consequences of the stigmatization, (p. 372). First, prejudice on an individual happens because of blatant rejection of the stigmatized people.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Second, the organization and the daily patterns of the social institutions describe struct ural discrimination and then reduce the chances of the stigmatized people to advance (Goffman 1963, p. 3). Third, stigmatization could be manifest via social-psychological processes happening in the life of the victims. For instance, self-esteem is greatly affected (Link Phelan 2001, p. 274). Concept of Stigma The study of the stigmatization is often faced with some hitches especially of the exhaustive description of the concept of stigmatization. Most of the investigators prefer to use the Goffman’s description and the idea that this reduces the status of a person to a lower level individual (Goffman 1963, p. 4). There are five presumptions of the important to understand basically a biological issue, the problems of the disabled are because of the disability, the disabled individual is victimized, the disability is a core concept in the definition and the presence of the disability is synonymous with requiring assistance of social support (Corrigan et al. 2002). Mental Heal th The phenomenon of stigmatization was explored by Goffman where he mentioned physical deformities, medical conditions, behaviours of certain kind, prejudice against a tribe, and religion among other things (Goffman 1963, p. 6). Individuals who possess stigmatizing characteristics could face problems of respect, consideration and acceptance. Mental health is the most prejudiced condition and it has undergone extensive research where most of the projects have sought to explore the occurrence of the problems and the reason why there is so much stigmatization against it (Goffman, 1963, p. 7). However, not much has been researched concerning how the victims actually deal with this form of prejudice. Communication with the mental health suffers and survivors show that the issues are not sufficiently dealt with. The stigmatized individuals on the other hand talk of having experienced very painful conditions when they are excluded, despised, rejected and separated in a number of day-to-da y encounters (Link et al. 2004, p. 511). Even though many people talk of their friends, family members, colleagues, neighbours and bosses, these stories mostly point at the mental health service system as the main cause of then discrimination (Link et al. 2004, p. 511). Even with all these, there is still very little concerning the victims survival tactics.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on How Do People Labelled With A Mental Illness Deal with Their Stigmatization? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More How Labelled People Handle the Situations Some progress has been made concerning the elimination of stigma of mental sickness on the victims. The cause of the stigma initially comes with labelling. The mentally sick people have often been referred to as ‘psychos’ or ‘schizos’. Sometimes the labelling extends to jokes even on television referring to these people as ‘loony bins’ and so o n. However, when one is actually suffering some form of mental sickness, then these works are not just jokes or gimmicks, rather they are perpetuating the stigma related to the mental health condition (Link Phelan 2001, p. 375). The individual feels ashamed and very emotionally hurt. Even so, there are some ways that these prejudiced individuals use to cope. Stigma can make an individual hungry or upset and it can still result in misunderstanding from the public with regard to this medical condition. Stigma is putting a mark on an individual with mental illness as in this context (Link Phelan 2001, p. 377). Therefore any stereotyping, calling of names, creating some divisions and excluding from some groups based on their condition amounts to discrimination and therefore stigmatization. It has been observed that while people may not find it easy to mock a person suffering from some form of disease like breast cancers, they easily tend to ridicule mentally ill people often and they find it very funny. Stigma against the men tally sick versus the physically handicapped is evident. The term mental illness itself is an indication that the medical condition is not in the physical body but the brain. Therefore some people do not take it as a legitimate condition therefore they do not regard is on the same level as the physical illness. Rather they look at it as a choice by an individual based on their actions. The sick people are blamed for allowing the condition in their heads. In reality, the problem is caused by very complex factors and in most cases they range from the combination of genetics, the physiology make up of the person and the life experiences. Most of these conditions are beyond the control of the individuals. To survive these prejudice, the stigmatized individual resort to a number of options that help them to survive and eliminated the stigma. Some people usually accept the label as being called ‘Psycho’ or ‘loony’ or any other label for that matter (Heitzeg 1996, p. 350).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As a result they adopt to live with these negative names and they are accepted in the society as insane people and hence they feel the stigma is reduced. Many people choose this alternative so as to reduce the rejection in the society or to try and reduce discrimination (Heitzeg 1996, p. 350). This tactic draws less attention to them and they survive the world. Goffman suggest that the stigmatized individuals could respond to the same situation in different ways. The response is based on individual beliefs. Some could even act in certain ways to show stigmatization by the mere fact that they believe they have a problem (Oetzel et al. 2006, p. 117). Some people could even try to pass or to conceal their problem from other people and the society at large so that they appear to be ‘normal’. Other people on the other hand, some people could attempt top â€Å"cover† or reduce the significance of the condition they are facing (Williams Healy 2001, p. 112). There are s ome cases where the stigmatized persons choose to reject the discrimination from the society especially the negative discrimination and then they redefine the discrimination in a positive way (Williams Healy 2001, p. 112). They in turn show pride and show off the stigma to be seen by everyone instead of hiding their condition from the public. For instance, a person who has ever suffered from mental illness and is now stigmatized by the idea that once crazy always crazy could take up a more activist role by leading and organisation that fights for the rights of mentally ill people (Heitzeg 1996, p. 356). Or on the other hand such an individual can take up the role of educating the public concerning the condition by giving presentations to the community, various organizations and so on. This education strategy can help the society to understand the condition better and how to deal with the condition. As a result, they can be able to provide more supportive roles (Heitzeg 1996, p. 356 ). Being labelled is a problem in the society especially when the society makes the label to be a very negative condition. The label affects socialization of the people and they get social isolation to a point that they can even fail to find marriage partners in life. The stigmatized individuals tend to keep away from the active societal participation so that they do not expose they deficiencies (Thompson et al. 2004, p. 530). As a result, they are often passive community or society members and they can silently suffer the stereotyping or the discriminatory behaviour. For instance, many theories on how people relate show that their relationships only come from or are instigated by physical and other external factors of which individual have no control over. Sometimes the impact of illness can affect crucial bodily function like reducing the sexual functioning when the individual perceive that they will always face rejection (Hinshaw Stier 2008 p. 371). Stigmatized individuals are a ble to develop survival strategies which include adaptation where they intentionally withdraw from other people so that they can protect themselves from situations that can cause identity threats (Phillips et al. 2002, p. 492). People suffering from mental illnesses on average have been found to also suffer depression and very low self esteem compared to the normal population. Because of isolation, they also suffer lack of social skills of which they can develop good relationships with others (Satche, 2000, p. 32). Conclusion Many people suffering mental illness often manifest by showing misplaced or irrational fear of others. Because of the problems, these people are not able to maintain relationships, they isolate themselves, they cannot easily adapt to change and they suffer emotionally progressively. However, those who adapt positively to the condition, they are able to overcome the stigma and become even prominent people and educators and activists. They grow their self esteem and get empowered by being mentally ill. Reference List Corrigan PW, et al., 2002. Challenging Two Mental Illness Stigmas: Personal Responsibility and Dangerousness. Schizophr Bull, Vol. 28, pp. 293–310 Goffman, E., 1963, Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Heitzeg, N. A., 1996, Deviance: Rulemakers Rulebreakers. St.Paul, MN: West Publishing Company. Hinshaw, S. P., Stier, A., 2008. Stigma as Related To Mental Disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 4, pp. 367–393 Link, B., et al., 2004. Measuring Mental Illness Stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, pp. 511–41. Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., 2001. Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 27, pp. 363–85 Oetzel, J., Duran, B., Lucero, J., Jiang, Y. 2006. Rural American Indians’ Perspectives Of Obstacles In The Mental Health Treatment Process In Three Treatment Sectors. Psychological Services, Vol. 2, pp. 117 œ128. Phillips, M. R., et al., 2002. Stigma and Expressed Emotion: A Study of People with Schizophrenia and Their Family Members in China. Bri J Psychiatry, Vol. 181, No. 488–493 Satcher, D. 2000. Mental Health Gets Noticed. Psychology Today, Vol. 33, No. 1, p. 32. Thompson, V., Noel, J. G., Campbell, J., 2004. Stigmatization, Discrimination, and Mental Health: The Impact of Multiple Identity Status. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 74, No. 4, pp. 529–544 Williams, B., Healy, D., 2001. Disclosure of Minor Mental Health Problems: An Exploratory Theoretical Study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 108-116

3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items

3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items 3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items 3 Cases of Nonequivalent List Items By Mark Nichol When a list of items in a sentence is not a simple matter of a, b, and c, writers can easily err in erroneously constructing the sentence, mangling the syntax in the mistaken belief that nonequivalent items are equivalent. Each of the sentences below presents a distinct problem with parallel structuring of lists, and the discussions and revisions that follow the examples explain and resolve the problems. 1. If you have a kitten, pregnant, or nursing cat, we recommend that you feed it kitten food. This sentence reads as if it refers to three types of cats: kitten cats, pregnant cats, and nursing cats. However, â€Å"kitten cat† is redundant, so kitten must appear syntactically distinct from the two other types of cats mentioned. The references to those types may be combined into a compound phrase, but it must follow a conjunction and a shared article, and the punctuation between them must be omitted to allow them to share the article: â€Å"If you have a kitten or a pregnant or nursing cat, we recommend that you feed it kitten food.† 2. Companies need to embrace innovation, cultural change, and embark on the digital-transformation process to become more nimble and keep up with the changing business environment. This sentence attempts to refer to three actions: embrace of innovation, embrace of cultural change, and embarkation on the digital-transformation process. But â€Å"cultural change† is not provided with its own verb, and the comma that precedes the phrase prevents it from sharing one with innovation. In order to share, the comma must be replaced by a conjunction. In addition, because such a revision results in two, not three, list items (the combination â€Å"embrace innovation and cultural change† and the phrase about embarkation), no internal punctuation is required: â€Å"Companies need to embrace innovation and cultural change and embark on the digital transformation process to become more nimble and keep up with the changing business environment.† 3. Factors influencing technology selection and implementation include the entity’s goals, marketplace needs, competitive requirements, and the associated costs and benefits. Because â€Å"associated costs and benefits† is only tangentially related to the entity, it should not be part of the list describing various aspects of the entity; the sentence must be revised so that â€Å"competitive requirements† is clearly the final item in the list: â€Å"Factors influencing technology selection and implementation include the entity’s goals, marketplace needs, and competitive requirements and the associated costs and benefits.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Comma After i.e. and e.g.List of Greek Words in the English Language15 Names and Descriptions of Effects

Psychological Disorders and Therapy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Psychological Disorders and Therapy - Essay Example PTSD symptoms can be clustered into intrusive symptoms – flashbacks reliving traumatic experiences, avoidant symptoms – withdrawal from possible triggers (place, event, people) of traumatic experiences, and hyperarousal – the feeling of being threatened always occurring as insomnia, irritability, extreme startle response. Nevertheless, PTSD is curable. Effective treatment to PTSD is a combination of psychoanalysis – a therapy that deals with the patient’s unconscious and repressed memories, and drug therapy. SSRIs are the first line of medication approved by the US FDA as it was proven effective to decrease anxiety, depression, and panic reducing aggression, impulsivity, and suicidal thoughts in patients. a. Features: PTSD is a complex disorder, classified as anxiety disorder (Post-traumatic Stress Disorder par.1) or emotional disorder (Dryden-Edwards 1). DSM-IV-TR described it a â€Å"normal reaction to abnormal events† (qtd. in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder par.1), wherein terribly threatening experiences like rape, military combat, torture, genocide, extreme disasters, etc. have disrupted the patient’s memory, emotional reactions, mental processes, and nervous system (PTSD par.1-2; Dryden-Edwards 1), making PTSD a unique psychiatric disorder, since its diagnosis depends on factor/s outside the victim – a deviance from psychiatry’s general emphasis on factors internal to individuals (PTSD par.2). b. Symptoms: DSM-IV-TR identified six criteria symptomatic of PTSD: (1) Traumatic stressor – patient’s exposure to life-threatening horrifying experiences; (2) Intrusive symptoms – flashbacks reliving traumatic experiences; (3) Avoidant symptoms – withdrawal from possible triggers (place, event, people) of traumatic experiences; (4) Hyperarousal – a threatened feeling always occurring as insomnia, irritability, extreme startle response; (5) Symptom duration – one month

Analysis of design learning space with the culture of modesty by Research Paper

Analysis of design learning space with the culture of modesty by observing how Saudi female students embrace existing learning space and the dress code at Riyadh city university - Research Paper Example Traditionally, privacy has been attained through demarcations of separations that were labelled by creating walls, fences, and doors with the sign of prohibition. However, these mechanisms are somewhat old-fashioned since architecture has gone a long way to increasing privacy in facilities. For instance, in 1978, Dan Graham presented his two-way mirror module Two Adjacent Pavilions in a model shown at the Museum of Modern Art in Oxford that enhanced privacy by using a dissimilar model from the previous architecture prototypes. This article studies the abstract architectural quality of privacy as presented in enclosed border-defined space in modern architecture and provides a proposal on privacy in the learning space as done by Riyadh City University in Saudi Arabia. Modern architecture also known as modernist architecture is a word used to imply to an all-embracing movement, with its meticulous definition and scope changing widely. The word is frequently applied to modern movements at the set of the new century. There are efforts to settle the principles of fundamental architectural design with fast technological progression and the transformation of society (Colquhoun, 2002, p. 120). Simultaneity, clarification, superimposition, contradiction, and art are the words that are mostly used synonymously to identify contemporary architecture. Nonetheless, architecture has been a phenomenon that has been dated from the Stone Age and was known to enhance protection from outside forces. As modernization came to pass, architecture has been changing with time and is more comprehensive of many human needs. Privacy is one of the key factors, which is defined as the quality of being isolated from the existence or view of others or the situation of being obs cured or hidden. In the quest to enhance this phenomenon, architects have gone to build walls, furniture, fences,